Van Zoonen argues that gender is not a biological fact but a social construct, shaped and maintained through repeated representations in the media. These representations often reflect patriarchal ideologies, positioning men and women in unequal roles and reinforcing traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Her theory also engages with objectification, the male gaze, and the relationship between gender, power, and visibility in media texts.
1. Begin with the Representation of Gender
Ask: How are men and women represented in this article?
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Who is shown and how are they portrayed?
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Is one gender shown as powerful, dominant, active, or professional?
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Is the other shown as emotional, passive, domestic, or decorative?
Van Zoonen link: Media representations often reinforce gender binaries, where men are associated with strength and control, and women with beauty and care. These are not natural differences but ideological constructions shaped by repeated media portrayals.
2. Analyse the Visual Representation
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What roles are visually assigned to men and women?
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Examine clothing, body language, gaze, framing, and positioning in the image.
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Are women objectified or sexualised (e.g. posed for visual pleasure)? Are men portrayed as doers or thinkers?
Van Zoonen link: Media frequently constructs women as objects of the male gaze—presented primarily for visual pleasure rather than for narrative or intellectual agency. This reflects deeper gender inequalities within media production and consumption.
Example: A woman in a glamorous outfit, smiling at the camera in a passive pose, reflects gendered expectations of appearance, whereas a man in a suit delivering a speech may connote power and leadership.
3. Deconstruct the Headline and Language
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How does the headline frame male or female subjects?
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Are gendered terms used (e.g. “girl boss,” “working mum,” “lad,” “gentleman”)?
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Is the woman’s role framed as surprising or secondary? Are men’s actions highlighted more?
Van Zoonen link: Language contributes to the construction of gendered identities. Women are often marked linguistically—as “female doctors” rather than simply “doctors”—which subtly positions them as exceptions rather than norms.
4. Examine Captions, Subheadings, and Pull Quotes
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What do these elements reveal about gender roles?
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Who is quoted or given a voice? Are women speaking or being spoken about?
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Is emotion or appearance focused on more than achievement or opinion?
Van Zoonen link: Women are often constructed in relation to how they feel or how they look, while men are constructed in relation to what they do or control. These patterns reflect the wider gendered division of labour and visibility in media.
Example: A pull quote from a woman describing how she felt, versus a quote from a man detailing what he accomplished, reinforces stereotypical gender roles.
5. Power and Hierarchy in Representation
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Who has power in the text—visually, linguistically, or ideologically?
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Is one gender shown as leading or making decisions, while another follows or reacts?
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Are women represented in professional or domestic roles? Are men represented in action-based or rational roles?
Van Zoonen link: Media representations often reflect broader patriarchal power structures, where men are shown as natural leaders and women as supportive or symbolic. Feminist theory encourages us to question how these patterns sustain gender inequality.
6. Audience Positioning and Gendered Readings
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How is the reader encouraged to view the male and female subjects?
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Are women to be admired visually or sympathised with emotionally?
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Are men to be respected, followed, or feared?
Van Zoonen link: Media positions audiences in ways that often align with the male gaze, encouraging identification with male power and detachment from female depth. This affects how gender roles are internalised and reproduced by audiences.
Example: A woman posed for admiration invites a voyeuristic reading, whereas a man taking action encourages identification and authority.
💬 Essay Sentence Starters
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“According to Van Zoonen, gender is constructed through media representations, and in this text…”
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“The image reflects a gendered power imbalance, with the woman shown as…, while the man is presented as…”
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“The language used in the headline reinforces traditional gender norms by…”
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“The woman is visually objectified through…, aligning with Van Zoonen’s idea of the male gaze.”
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“The representation of gender in this article upholds/challenges patriarchal ideologies by…”
🧠CONTEXTUAL LINKS
Linking to context is essential for strong answers. Van Zoonen’s theory is particularly effective for examining how social, cultural, political, and historical contexts shape the construction of gender.
SOCIAL CONTEXT
What to look for: Gender roles in work, family, appearance, or emotional expression.
Van Zoonen link: Media both reflects and reinforces social norms about gender. If women are shown as carers and men as providers, this upholds a traditional, patriarchal view of gender relations.
Example: An article that praises a man for parenting may reflect low expectations of male care work, while a woman doing the same may be framed as ordinary.
CULTURAL CONTEXT
What to look for: Ideas of femininity, masculinity, and beauty shaped by cultural expectations.
Van Zoonen link: Different cultures have different gender norms, but the media often universalises a particular (usually Western, white, heterosexual) standard of gender. This creates narrow templates for how people should look or act.
Example: A beauty-focused portrayal of women in a political piece may reflect cultural pressures on women to prioritise appearance, even in serious settings.
POLITICAL CONTEXT
What to look for: Gender equality debates, media ownership, newsroom diversity.
Van Zoonen link: The underrepresentation of women in political or leadership roles in the media reflects wider structural inequalities. Who gets to be seen and heard affects who is taken seriously.
Example: A male MP being praised for decisiveness while a female MP is scrutinised for appearance reflects political gender bias.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
What to look for: How representations have changed or stayed the same over time.
Van Zoonen link: Some representations challenge old stereotypes, while others recycle them. Media can both reflect progress and resist it.
Example: Comparing a 2020s businesswoman shown in a powerful stance to 1950s domestic representations reveals changes in gender identity—but also the persistence of beauty standards and emotional framing.
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