VIDEO GAMES / FILM INDUSTRY / PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING MARKSCHEME

APPLY THIS MARK SCHEME TO ALL INDUSTRY QUESTIONS

Regulation: Film Industry

Assess the significance of regulation in shaping the production and distribution of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Shang-Chi and The Legend of The Ten Rings (2021).

Regulation has played a significant, if shifting, role in shaping Hollywood film across both periods. In 1937 and 2021, the regulatory environment did not simply restrict content it actively shaped the commercial strategies of the institutions producing and distributing these films.

In 1937, the dominant regulatory force was the Hays Code, enforced by the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. It required that films must not lower moral standards, banning content including nudity, homosexuality etc. For most studios this meant constant negotiation between creative ambition and censorial constraint, but Snow White occupied a uniquely comfortable position: Disney's "family values" reputation meant the film largely reflected rather than battled the Code.  In the UK, the British Board of Film Censorship classified it as an "A" certificate, requiring cuts to some of the darker expressionistic sequences; however, the uncut version was reclassified "U" by 1964, demonstrating that regulatory standards are not fixed moral absolutes but products of their cultural moment.

By 2021 the Hays Code had been replaced by the MPA's age-based system. Shang-Chi was awarded PG-13 in the US, a classification strategically pursued by Disney, since it maximised the teenage audience whilst avoiding the commercial damage of an R rating. The BBFC awarding a 12 in the UK. Crucially, these ratings were designed into the production from the outset: the comic-book fantasy framing of violence is a deliberate mechanism for achieving the commercially optimal certificate, illustrating how institutional awareness of regulation shapes creative decisions rather than simply filtering them afterwards.

However, two further regulatory forces shaped Shang-Chi's distribution in ways that have no equivalent in 1937. First, the Covid-19 pandemic created an entirely new quasi-regulatory environment. The film's release was delayed multiple times before launching on Labour Day weekend 2021, exclusively in cinemas rather than simultaneously on Disney+, which was an unusual decision for the period, driven by pandemic uncertainty. The film's theatrical exclusivity was therefore not purely a strategic choice but a response to the disrupted regulatory and commercial landscape that Covid had created around exhibition.

Second, and more significantly, China's state regulatory framework, controlled by the China Film Group Corporation's monopoly on foreign film imports, meant Shang-Chi never entered the Chinese market at all. Given that Avengers: Endgame earned over 30% of its global box office from China, this was a substantial commercial blow, limiting Shang-Chi's international earnings considerably. The irony is acute: a film designed in part to celebrate Chinese cultural identity was blocked by the Chinese state, arguably because its fictionalised, Hollywood-inflected portrayal of that culture was deemed politically or culturally unacceptable.

Livingstone and Lunt argue that new technologies open up opportunities and risks that fundamentally complicate regulation, visible here in Disney's restriction of Shang-Chi's streaming to Disney+ a convergence of production, distribution, and exhibition within one corporate structure that echoes the vertical integration anti-trust legislation had dismantled in the 1930s. Hesmondhalgh's framework is equally useful: regulation, rather than constraining dominant institutions, often consolidates their power, since large conglomerates like Disney are best placed to navigate classification systems, exploit streaming exclusivity, and absorb the commercial damage of losing access to markets like China, losses that would be fatal to smaller competitors.

Regulation has therefore shaped both films profoundly, but its nature has evolved from content censorship towards a complex interplay of classification strategy, state market control, pandemic disruption, and digital distribution each reflecting the institutional priorities of Hollywood in its respective era.

WE GAVE THIS 9/10 OUT OF 15 

LOOK AT THIS NEW ESSAY: GRADE IT. HAS IT IMPROVED?

Regulation has played a significant role in shaping Hollywood film, although its influence has changed considerably between 1937 and 2021. Whereas regulation in the 1930s primarily focused on controlling the moral content of films, contemporary regulation increasingly involves age classification, international market restrictions and digital distribution. Globalisation and technological developments have therefore transformed both the opportunities and challenges facing media institutions such as Disney.

In 1937, the dominant regulatory influence was the Hays Code. Introduced in 1930 and rigorously enforced from 1934 by the MPPDA, it established moral guidelines restricting content such as nudity, homosexuality and excessive violence. Disney's Snow White largely conformed to these expectations because of its positioning as family entertainment. Its narrative reinforces conventional moral values, presenting good triumphing over evil and ensuring wrongdoing is punished. Although the film contains frightening sequences, including the Queen's transformation, these are presented within a fantasy narrative that maintains the moral framework expected by the Code. Regulation therefore helped establish the moral boundaries within which Hollywood films operated, even when it did not directly restrict creative ambition. In Britain, the BBFC initially awarded Snow White an 'A' certificate in 1938, meaning children under 16 required adult accompaniment. This reflected concerns about frightening sequences and their potential impact on younger audiences. The film was subsequently reclassified 'U' in 1964, before receiving an uncut 'U' classification in 1987. This demonstrates how regulatory decisions reflect changing cultural attitudes rather than permanent moral standards, influencing not only film content but also its accessibility to particular audiences.

Technological developments have further transformed the relationship between regulation and distribution. Originally dependent on theatrical exhibition and cinema re-releases, Snow White is now available through Disney+, allowing audiences to access it at home. Streaming platforms introduce different considerations, including age classifications and parental controls. Furthermore, Disney can retain control over the distribution of its extensive back catalogue, using older films to attract and retain subscribers. Regulation has therefore evolved from controlling access to cinema exhibition towards influencing how audiences access and consume content digitally. By 2021, the Hays Code had been replaced by age-based classification systems. Shang-Chi received a PG-13 classification in the USA and a 12 certificate in the UK. Unlike the Hays Code, these systems classify content according to its suitability for different audiences rather than imposing universal moral requirements. The PG-13 classification was commercially advantageous for Disney because it allowed the film to reach a broad teenage and adult audience without the restrictions of an R rating. Its stylised martial arts violence and fantasy setting also demonstrate how creative decisions can be influenced by the desire to achieve commercially favourable classifications. Although regulation no longer exercises the same direct control over production, it continues to influence filmmakers' creative and commercial decisions.

Globalisation has introduced additional regulatory challenges. China's state-controlled film industry requires foreign films to receive government approval before theatrical distribution. Despite its Chinese cultural influences and predominantly Asian cast, Shang-Chi was never granted a Chinese theatrical release. This was commercially significant because China represents an enormous international market for Hollywood. For comparison, Avengers: Endgame earned approximately $629 million in China, around 22% of its original worldwide box-office revenue. The absence of this market restricted Shang-Chi's potential international earnings, demonstrating how political and cultural regulation can influence commercial success. Whereas Disney faced censorship and classification authorities in the 1930s, contemporary Hollywood studios must also negotiate the political interests of powerful international markets.

The Covid-19 pandemic also affected Shang-Chi's distribution. Following several delays, the film received an exclusive theatrical release in September 2021, rather than being released simultaneously on Disney+. It subsequently became available on the platform after approximately 45 days. This demonstrates how technological developments and the disruption caused by Covid-19 transformed the commercial relationship between cinema distribution and streaming, requiring Disney to reconsider how audiences could access its films.

Ultimately, regulation has shaped both films, but its influence has evolved. Snow White demonstrates the significance of moral censorship and age classification, whereas Shang-Chi illustrates the increasing importance of international markets, political restrictions and digital distribution. Regulation has not necessarily become less significant since the 1930s; rather, it has become more complex, shifting from controlling what audiences can watch towards influencing where, how and under what commercial conditions films can be produced and distributed.

Lesson 3: Apply Theory - Newspaper Question One - Media Representation Style Question

Question

Analyse the social representations in Source A and Source B. 

Apply Hall's theories about representation in your answer.

SOURCE A: The Guardian - November 25th 2021

SOURCE B: The Daily Express - November 25th 2021

Task 1: Tell someone else in the room what these key words/phrases mean in relation to Hall's theories of representation.

• Present, Absent, Different
• Stereotype (Stereotypical)/Countertype (Countertypical) 
• Fix a preferred meaning
• Hegemonic

Task 2: What is the messaging around migrants as a social group in Source A?

Task 3: What is the messaging around migrants as a social group in Source B?

Task 4: What other social groups are represented in the two sources?

Task 5: Remind yourself of the marks scheme for this type of question...

1. Correctly characterise the theory [0,1,2]​ 

2. Answer the question [0,1,2]​  

3. Use specific and detailed examples [0,1,2]​ 

• Look at the main image and anchoring text.
• Look at the main headline and sub headline - consider typography and language
• Look at anything else of interest on the page

4. Uses the theory to analyse the examples [0,1,2]​

5. Use Media Studies terminology [0,1,2]

Task 6: Write the essay - 30 mins 

Regulation: Video Gaming Industry

 Assess the significance of regulation in shaping the production, distribution and consumption of Animal Crossing: New Horizons as a video game product.

Regulation of the video games industry presents particular challenges because, unlike film, video games are digitally convergent products that can evolve through online connectivity and user-generated content. Animal Crossing: New Horizons illustrates how traditional regulatory frameworks, designed primarily to classify fixed media products, have become increasingly inadequate in an environment where gaming overlaps with social media, online communication and political expression.

At the most basic level, New Horizons sits comfortably within established content classification systems. In the UK, the VSC applies the PEGI framework, awarding the game a PEGI 3 classification, meaning it is suitable for all ages. This reflects its family-friendly design, with no graphic violence or gambling mechanics. Nintendo's decision to avoid controversial monetisation practices, such as paid loot boxes, helps protect its family-friendly brand and ensures the game appeals to a broad audience. Regulation therefore influences production decisions, but can also benefit institutions by encouraging products that satisfy classification requirements and minimise reputational risks. Established companies such as Nintendo have the resources to understand and respond to regulatory expectations while protecting their commercial interests.

However, age classification represents only one aspect of regulation. The greater challenge comes from the convergence of gaming, online communication and user-generated content. The Nintendo Switch allows players to share experiences, visit other islands and interact online. In the UK, the Online Safety Act 2023 places responsibilities on qualifying user-to-user services to assess risks and protect children from harmful content. Ofcom's Protection of Children Codes, introduced in July 2025, require relevant services likely to be accessed by children to implement appropriate safety measures, including reporting systems and protections against harmful content. This demonstrates how regulation increasingly extends beyond the game itself to the online environments in which audiences consume it. It also creates greater compliance responsibilities for companies operating connected gaming services.

The most striking example of the complexity of regulating online gaming comes from the game's use as a platform for political expression. In 2020, players used Animal Crossing islands to stage virtual Hong Kong pro-democracy protests, sharing images through social media. In response, copies of the game disappeared from Chinese online retailers, including Taobao and Pinduoduo. Importantly, the game had never received an official mainland Chinese release, and it was never confirmed whether the government directly ordered its removal. Never-the-less, the incident demonstrates how a seemingly harmless PEGI 3 game could become a vehicle for political expression because of its user-generated content. This created regulatory challenges that traditional classification systems could not anticipate. Furthermore, it demonstrates how state control over international distribution can restrict access to a media product for political and cultural reasons. This example also highlights the changing relationship between production, distribution and consumption. Nintendo created a game intended primarily as a social simulation, allowing players to customise their islands and share their creations. However, audiences appropriated these features for purposes beyond the original intentions of the producers. The resulting political activity had consequences for the game's availability in China. This demonstrates that regulation can be influenced not only by the content producers create but also by the unpredictable ways audiences use and reinterpret it.

Ultimately, Animal Crossing: New Horizons demonstrates the limitations of traditional regulatory approaches to video games. Its PEGI 3 classification successfully communicates the suitability of its basic content, but does not account for every possible use of its online environment. Regulation must therefore increasingly consider the relationship between production, distribution and consumption, rather than simply classifying a finished product at the point of sale. As gaming becomes more socially connected and internationally distributed, regulatory frameworks will need to adapt to a medium in which audiences are not simply consumers but active participants.

Regulation: Public Service Broadcasting - 2 Examples

EXAMPLE 1:

Assess the significance of regulation in shaping the production and distribution of the BBC Radio 1 Breakfast Show.

The BBC Radio 1 Breakfast Show is shaped by regulation in ways that distinguish it from commercial breakfast radio. Its production and distribution are influenced not simply by audience demand but by the BBC’s public service obligations, established through the Royal Charter and made more specific through Radio 1’s Service Licence. Regulation therefore helps determine the programme’s identity, content and relationship with its audience.

The Royal Charter establishes the BBC’s mission to serve the public interest through distinctive content that informs, educates and entertains. Radio 1’s Service Licence translates this broad mission into requirements for the station, including a focus on 15–29-year-olds, support for new and emerging UK music, news provision and content that reflects young people’s lives. These obligations influence the Breakfast Show’s production. Regular Newsbeat bulletins provide news aimed at younger listeners, while music and speech content must contribute to Radio 1’s distinctive offer. Social action campaigns addressing issues such as mental health and wellbeing also reflect the BBC’s responsibility to provide more than entertainment. Regulation therefore acts as a creative brief: it shapes what the programme includes and the audiences it is expected to serve.

These requirements distinguish Radio 1 from commercial competitors such as Capital. Commercial stations are more directly driven by advertising revenue and the need to attract commercially valuable audiences. Radio 1, funded through the licence fee, has a different obligation: it must provide distinctive public service content for its target audience. This does not mean that audience figures are unimportant, but that success cannot be measured by ratings alone. Regulation helps protect content that might receive less attention in a purely commercial model.

Since 2017, Ofcom has been the BBC’s independent regulator, taking over this role from the BBC Trust. It assesses the BBC’s performance against its public purposes and Operating Licence, and regulates broadcast content through the Broadcasting Code. This creates external accountability for the BBC’s decisions. Ofcom can investigate potential breaches and require the BBC to take appropriate action. However, declining RAJAR figures should not automatically be treated as a regulatory failure: audience data helps the BBC and Ofcom understand reach, but a fall in listening does not by itself prove that the BBC has failed its obligations. The challenge is to demonstrate that Radio 1 continues to serve its target audience while responding to changing listening habits.

This challenge has become more significant as audiences increasingly consume radio content digitally. The Breakfast Show is no longer experienced only through scheduled FM or DAB broadcasts; clips, video, social media and on-demand listening extend its distribution. Livingstone and Lunt argue that new technologies create opportunities and risks that complicate regulation. The BBC’s 2024 Mid-Term Review reflects this development: Ofcom’s responsibilities are being extended to specific BBC online public service material, including editorially controlled content on third-party platforms such as YouTube. This does not mean that every social media post or user comment is automatically covered, but it recognises that public service content is now distributed beyond traditional broadcasting. The regulatory framework is therefore adapting to the platforms through which audiences encounter the programme.

Regulation also shapes the BBC’s wider institutional priorities, including its funding and its responsibility to provide distinctive output. The licence fee supports a service that is not dependent on advertising, while the Service Licence requires Radio 1 to demonstrate its public value. The BBC must balance this obligation with the need to remain relevant in a competitive media environment.

Ultimately, regulation is fundamental to the identity of the Radio 1 Breakfast Show. It influences the content produced, the audience it serves and the platforms through which it is distributed. Its significance has increased as digital media have changed listening habits: the BBC must now fulfil its public service responsibilities across a wider range of platforms, while remaining accountable for the distinctive content it provides.

EXAMPLE 2:

Assess the significance of regulation in shaping the way that Public Service Broadcasting targets specific audiences of the BBC Radio 1 Breakfast Show.

The BBC Radio 1 Breakfast Show’s approach to audience targeting is shaped by public service regulation. Unlike commercial stations, which primarily target audiences attractive to advertisers, Radio 1 has a specific obligation to serve younger listeners. The Royal Charter establishes the BBC’s public service mission, while Radio 1’s Service Licence translates this into a target audience and requirements for distinctive content. Regulation therefore influences not only what the Breakfast Show broadcasts, but who it is designed to reach and how it tries to reach them.

Radio 1’s Service Licence identifies 15–29-year-olds as its target audience. This is not simply a marketing choice: it reflects the BBC’s responsibility to provide a service for younger audiences, who may be less well served by other parts of its output. The Breakfast Show contributes to this obligation through its music, presenters, news and speech content. Newsbeat provides news in a style intended to engage younger listeners, while social action campaigns address issues such as mental health, relationships and financial wellbeing. The programme must also support new and emerging UK music. Regulation therefore acts as a creative brief, shaping the content through which Radio 1 seeks to reach its intended audience.

The appointment of Nick Grimshaw in 2012 illustrates how this obligation can influence presenter and programme decisions. Grimshaw brought a younger presenting style and helped Radio 1 reposition the Breakfast Show towards its target demographic. Audience research during his tenure suggested that much of the decline in listening came from older listeners. This illustrates a tension within the BBC’s remit: the station could become more successful at attracting its intended age group while losing listeners overall. However, regulation does not require Radio 1 to maximise total audience figures at any cost. Its priority is to serve its target audience while remaining distinctive and relevant. The Grimshaw period therefore demonstrates both the influence and the limitations of regulation: it can establish whom the station should serve, but it cannot guarantee that those audiences will choose to listen.

The move from Grimshaw to Greg James represented a further adaptation of this strategy. James placed greater emphasis on audience participation, humour and interaction, including the use of social media. This reflects the need to reach younger audiences whose media consumption is spread across broadcast radio, streaming and online platforms. RAJAR remains important for measuring radio listening, but it does not capture every way audiences encounter the Breakfast Show, such as watching clips or interacting with content online. Digital engagement therefore provides additional evidence of audience reach, although figures for the wider Radio 1 YouTube channel should not be confused with audience figures for the Breakfast Show alone.

Livingstone and Lunt argue that new technologies create opportunities and risks that complicate regulation. The Breakfast Show illustrates this because the BBC’s public service obligations increasingly need to be fulfilled across different platforms. The 2024 BBC Mid-Term Review recognised that audiences consume BBC content online and recommended extending Ofcom’s regulatory responsibilities to specific BBC online public service material, including editorially controlled BBC content on third-party platforms such as YouTube. This does not mean that all social media activity or audience comments automatically fall within Ofcom’s remit. Nevertheless, it demonstrates how regulation is adapting to the changing ways in which younger audiences access media.

Ultimately, regulation is central to the Breakfast Show’s audience strategy. The Service Licence establishes the obligation to serve 15–29-year-olds, while changes in presenters, programme style and digital distribution show how the BBC attempts to meet that responsibility. The experience of Grimshaw and James demonstrates that the target audience remains a regulatory priority even as listening habits change. Regulation determines whom Radio 1 must serve, but the BBC must continually adapt how it reaches them.

Lesson 1: Pre MTV Music Videos

MTV launched in 1981 and became the first television channel dedicated entirely to showing music videos. However, music videos had existed for many years before MTV began broadcasting, with artists creating promotional films to accompany and advertise their music. Early examples can be traced back to the 1960s, when artists such as The Beatles experimented with combining popular music with creative visual imagery. During the 1970s, artists such as David Bowie, ABBA and Queen helped develop the music video into a more sophisticated form of promotion and artistic expression. MTV did not invent the music video, but it transformed the way audiences consumed them and helped make the music video an essential part of the music industry.

The Beatles - Paperback Writer - YouTube 

> Performance: Direct Mode of Address is a familiar convention of most performance based music videos. The artists are also seen playing musical instruments (though miming).

> Shot Type and Editing: There is some dynamism in the use of shot type and editing, but it is certainly not as dynamic as we are used to in more modern music videos. Very little camera movement.

> Fashion and Style: The Beatles were fashion icons, but they don't appear to be heavily styled, other than the clothing and styling that was part of their general appearance.

> Purpose: The purpose is perhaps the most generic element, as this was produced to allow TV stations to broadcast performances by the artist who could not be there to perform live.

David Bowie - Life On Mars? (Official Video)

> Performance: Again, direct mode of address is a familiar convention of most performance based music videos. Bowie's performance is more passionate and dynamic than The Beatles. 

> Shot Type and Editing: There is some more dynamism in the use of camera, including freeze frames etc. And the lighting is clearly manipulated to make Bowie's costume and makeup appear more lurid. Camera movement is limited, but the editing is a little more closely matched to the music/lyrics.

> Fashion and Style: Bowie's image is iconic and close ups on his eyes and face reveal makeup and hair that challenges gender norms. His suit is also lurid and pink adding to this countercultural portrayal of his identity.

> Purpose: The purpose of this music video is not unlike Paperback Writer, in that it would have been broadcast on dedicated music programmes when Bowie was not able to appear himself. However, it goes a stage further, also promoting Bowie as an identifiable figure and possibly as an aspirational icon, though only within a countercultural youth audience.

ABBA - Mamma Mia (Official Music Video) - YouTube

> Performance: Again, direct mode of address is a familiar convention of most performance based music videos. Benny and Bjorn are presented using the convention of playing their instruments. While there is nothing elaborate, there is clearly some attempt made to choreograph Anni and Agnetha. 

> Shot Type and Editing: There is even more dynamism in the use of camera, including close up shots on the piano strings and guitar being played. The musicality of the editing is far more apparent. Camera movement is still fairly limited, but elements like rack focus demonstrate more attention to production values.

> Fashion and Style: ABBA's costumes were iconic in their way. They were clearly unconventional compared to the day to day fashions of the 1970s, but the disco style would have clearly appeared to a youth audience. Unlike Bowie, their style was more about having fun than challenging cultural norms around gender.

> Purpose: The purpose of this music video is also promotional. However, what is interesting about Mamma Mia is that this short promotional film was part of a package of four such music videos released to be shown to an international market (especially Australia). The promotional film (notice I am not yet calling it a music video) to Mamma Mia was so popular with Australian audiences that it encouraged the record label to release the song as a single in Australia. It went on to spend 10 weeks at number one.

QUEEN - Bohemian Rhapsody

 > Performance: The promotional video for Bohemian Rhapsody simulates concert performance. The artists are clearly performing in a passionate way, playing their instruments and appear to be performing live (though there is no footage of the audience - indicating that this is not truly live).

> Shot Type and Editing: There is even more dynamism in the use of camera than in any of the previous videos. Cross fading and super imposition layer the performance. The mise en scene is combined with a low angle shot to simulate concert performance. The editing is dynamic and matched to the musicality of the song. Video feedback loops and multi-camera techniques are artistic, unusual and demonstrate high production values.

> Fashion and Style: Queen sit somewhere between Bowie and ABBA in terms of their youth cultural significance. Their costuming at this time is clearly glam rock. Mercury, though iconic in so many ways, is ironically much safer than Bowie and the emphasis is on musicianship and performance more than breaking boundaries of taste and cultural normativity. 

> Purpose: The purpose of this promo video is, like all the others, promotional. However, what is perhaps more interesting here is the strategic nature of the promo video. Bohemian Rhapsody is a genuinely complex song to perform, featuring anthemic rock elements and periods that resemble opera. As such, Queen created the promo in order to avoid the need to perform it live, using the promo to fix its iconic nature in the modern musical consciousness. 

 

 

Lesson 2: MTV BEGINS

MTV (Music Television) launched in the United States on 1 August 1981, introducing a channel dedicated to broadcasting music videos around the clock. It was created partly because television executives recognised the commercial potential of music videos and saw teenagers as an important audience. MTV obtained videos from record companies, largely for free, and made money through advertising. Its original library was limited, meaning that videos were frequently repeated. On its first day, MTV broadcast 116 different music videos, beginning with The Buggles’ Video Killed the Radio Star.

MTV had a profound cultural impact because it changed the way audiences discovered music and how artists promoted themselves. Music videos became an increasingly important part of an artist’s identity, with fashion, choreography, visual effects and storytelling helping to make performers recognisable.

The Buggles - Video Killed The Radio Star (Official Music Video) - YouTube

Pat Benatar - You Better Run (Official Music Video) - YouTube

Rod Stewart - She Won't Dance With Me (Official Video)

The Who - You Better You Bet (Promo Video)

Pretenders - Brass In Pocket (Official Music Video) - YouTube

 

 

Political Context

Political Context Question:

Mark Scheme 

1. Clearly answers the question - QUESTION [0,1,2]

2. Has a coherent argument throughout - COHERENT [0,1,2] 

3. Uses a wide range of specific and detailed examples - EXAMPLES [0,1,2]

4. Analyses/Interprets every example - ANALYSE/INTERPRET [0,1,2]

5. Writes like a Media Studies student - TERMINOLOGY [0,1,2]

 

How do political contexts shape the way newspapers represent events, issues, and individuals?  Refer to The Guardian/Guardian Online and The Daily Mail/Mail Online to support your answer. 

Introduction: This could work for Historical, Cultural or Political context

The Daily Mail and The Guardian are both national institutions whose historical, cultural and political significance were established at their inception and have hardly changed over the last two centuries. The Guardian was founded in 1821 in response to the Peterloo massacre. It's liberal founders intended the paper to provide a voice for the marginalised and to hold the powerful to account. It has maintained its reputations for journalistic integrity and rigour ever since. Today, while it does still have an excellent reputation for largely unbiased journalism, it does also face some criticism for its tendency to support more left wing political positions. By contrasts, The Daily Mail, is unabashedly right leaning and conservative in its messaging and has been since its founding in 1896. In the 130 years since its first publication its owners and editors have maintained the stance that it does not actively support any political party, but rather that it serves its middle class readership, whose views have tended to align with the Conservative party. It is and has always been a politically populist publication and this has shaped its response to the representations of individuals, ideas and events.

SECTION 1: BREXIT 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemies_of_the_people_(headline)#/media/File:Daily_Mail_-_Enemies_of_the_People.png 

The three judges who 'blocked Brexit' | Daily Mail Online

https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CwXl1s9XgAQl8sH?format=jpg&name=large

1st, Mark the example in the comments section.

2nd, Write your own example and then post in the comments section.

SECTION 2: COVID

 

 

 

Lesson 3: Genre Conventions

 

Look carefully at the shots below. Can we match them to any of these generic conventions of music videos?

1: Michael Jackson in heavy makeup. The first reveal of his werewolf transformation.

2: Michael and Ola Ray (Actress and Model) are sitting watching the werewolf movie.

3: Michael begins to perform the song to Ola. We get a full view of their costumes. From her jerry curls, to her rolled up sleeves, to her capri jeans and red high heels, she is dressed like a fashionable young black woman. Michael's outfit is not fashionable - yet!

4: A set piece has a shot circling Ray, followed by the reveal on Jackson's zombie makeup, finishing with a dolly zoom that is a generic feature of horror cinema designed to convey a sense of vertigo. 

5: Finally, for Thriller, there is a choreographed dance routine.

Lesson 4: Understanding Intertextuality

One of the most important concepts in Media Studies is called Intertextuality. I hope you remember the concept of allusion when you studied English for GCSE. Intertextuality is the same concept applied to media texts. So, when on media text makes reference to another media text, we say something like: Text A makes an intertextual reference to Text B.  

These references might include films, television programmes, other music videos, works of art, social media platforms, news reports or even include representations of or simulations of recognisable cultural figures. The audience's understanding of a media text can be influenced by how well they recognise these references and the meanings they associate with them.

We have already seen this in Michael Jackson's Thriller, which draws on the conventions of horror films, including the transformation into a monster, the threatening atmosphere and the choreographed zombie sequence. Rather than simply performing a song, Jackson creates a narrative that deliberately references and reworks an established film genre. This engages the audience on a deeper level and also appeals to the convention of creating a connection with the audience by suggestion artistic value alignment; we like horror movies, especially the recent werewolf and zombie movies, and so does Michael. So we are like Michael. So we like Michael. 

There are several ways in which intertextuality can affect an audience. Recognising a reference can create pleasure because the audience feels that they understand the connection between the two texts. It can also add layers of meaning, as the audience brings their existing knowledge of a film, genre or cultural figure to their interpretation of the music video. Intertextuality can also challenge or subvert audience expectations when a familiar image or convention is used in an unexpected way. However, these effects depend on the audience's cultural knowledge. Someone who recognises a reference may interpret a video differently from someone who does not.

Thriller achieves these effects particularly well. Audiences familiar with horror films can recognise and enjoy the conventions Jackson recreates, including the transformation into a monster and the zombie sequence. These references also help establish the video's narrative, allowing the audience to understand the threats and anticipate what might happen next. However, Jackson does more than reproduce horror conventions: by combining them with a pop song and elaborate choreography, he transforms the horror film into a musical performance. This creates a distinctive viewing experience that appeals to both music fans and horror audiences. The video therefore demonstrates how intertextuality can reward existing knowledge while also reworking familiar conventions to create something new.

In this lesson, we are going to consider how the Music Video to Madonna's Material Girl uses intertextuality to construct a layered understanding of the artist as a performer but also as a persona. You may not know much about Madonna, because she is no longer the global sensation that she was in the latter part of the 20th Century, so you may need to do some searching to be able to answer these questions. Furthermore, to understand this music video you're going to have to go back almost 75 Years to understand the references that are being made.

Task 1: Start by watching this clip from Gentlemen Prefer Blondes then answer the following questions.

Marilyn Monroe Sings Diamonds Are A Girl's Best Friend

- The character's name is Lorelei. What is persona that is being projected by this performance?

- How does this persona relate to the public representation of the actress, Marilyn Monroe?

Task 2: Watch this promotional music video for the song Material Girl

Madonna - Material Girl (Official Video) [HD]

- How does the music video make it clear that we are watching a constructed reality rather than a faithful representation of the artist?

- Which of the conventions of music videos are being used to promote the artist in this music video?

- What myths are being constructed during the sequences that reference Gentlemen Prefer Blondes?

- How are these myths challenged by the narrative that exists outside of the reference?

- How is intertextuality being used to construct the persona of the artist?

Lesson 5: Counter-cultural messaging

Let's start with a quick definition: Counter-cultural messaging is communication that challenges the dominant values, beliefs and attitudes of mainstream society, often by questioning authority, rejecting social expectations or giving a voice to groups who feel marginalised.

Music has always had a strong influence within counter cultural movements, so it seems a natural progression for music videos to provide artists with a way to challenge the values, expectations and representations promoted by mainstream society. Rather than simply reflecting dominant cultural attitudes, counter-cultural music videos can give a voice to groups who feel excluded, question authority and challenge stereotypes about how people should behave. This has been particularly important for young people and minority groups, whose identities have often been represented by older generations or mainstream media rather than on their own terms.

The development of music television, particularly MTV from 1981 onwards, gave artists a powerful visual platform through which to communicate these ideas to mass audiences. However, counter-cultural messages can also be controversial. A video might challenge stereotypes by presenting a group differently, but it might also reinforce negative representations or create new ones.

As we watch the following videos, we will apply Stuart Hall’s theory of representation. Hall argues that representations are not simply reflections of reality. They are constructed through choices about images, language, sound, editing and performance, and they communicate particular meanings. We should therefore consider not only what is represented, but how and why it is represented in that way, and how audiences might interpret it differently.

Task 1: Straight Outta Compton - Watch first then answer the questions

(WARNING: THIS MUSIC VIDEO CONTAINS LANGUAGE THAT COULD (AND PROBABLY SHOULD) BE SEEN AS OFFENSIVE)

N.W.A. - Straight Outta Compton (Official Music Video)

1. What social groups are being represented in this music video?

2. What is/was the mainstream (hegemonic) messaging about that social group?

3. How does the messaging in the music video offer a different (pluralistic) representation?

4. How might different audiences react to the stereotypes/countertypes in this Music Video?

Task 2: Smell Like Teen Spirit - Watch first then answer the questions

Nirvana - Smells Like Teen Spirit (Official Music Video) - YouTube

1. What social groups are being represented in this music video?

2. What is/was the mainstream (hegemonic) messaging about that social group?

3. How does the messaging in the music video offer a different (pluralistic) representation?

4. How might different audiences react to the stereotypes/countertypes in this Music Video?

UNSEEN EXTRACT

 QUESTION:

Analyse the way that Media Language is used to present social contexts in Source A (The Daily Mail) and Source B (The Guardian Online).​ 

Apply Barthes Theories about Semiotics in your answer.

CONTEXT

The Nottingham maternity scandal centred on serious failures in maternity care at Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, where hundreds of babies and mothers died or suffered avoidable harm. A major review published in June 2026 found evidence of a “toxic” institutional culture, including concerns that women’s experiences and warnings were not properly listened to. The story prompted wider debate about women’s healthcare, institutional accountability, gender inequality and whether NHS systems adequately listen to and protect mothers and babies. 

SOURCE A: The Daily Mail Front Cover (Right Wing) 

https://hermes.media.static.aol.com/media/2026/06/25/a125da6a-abfd-3dad-af27-27d6084acb90/168a8572-b4d2-4a76-a8da-614215f22cb8.jpg 

 

 

SOURCE A: The Daily Mirror Front Cover (Left Wing) 

 

SAMPLE ESSAY

Barthes theorises that signs are used to construct connotations connected to social and cultural myths. He argues that these myths make ideologies seem natural and reinforce social and cultural norms.

The social context constructed by the Daily Mail cover addresses the myth of male power and perhaps attempts to undermine the cultural myth of the NHS as a deeply caring institution. The banner headline is bold and damning in its portrayal of men as a social group, stating clearly that male “arrogance” and a refusal to “listen” is at the heart of the scandal that led to the death or harm of “500 mothers and babies.” At first, we might see this as challenging the right wing patriarchal ideological position of the Daily Mail, but it is notable that the headline still centralises male authority; it reinforces the myth that men as a social group have power over women and children, which naturalises patriarchal authority, despite being critical of men as a social group. The typography, using capitals and a serif font reinforces the traditionalist stance of the newspaper, further lending itself to the idea that it tacitly traditional values of male hierarchy and control. Interestingly, the Daily Mail has chosen not to use an image associated with this lead story. This may be because they didn’t want to create sympathy for the female victims, but it is more likely to reinforce their criticism of the left-wing institution (NHS). The connotation of having no image of people involved reinforces the idea that the NHS are faceless and don’t care for the weakest social groups, mothers and babies. This naturalises the right-wing ideological position of the paper.

The Daily Mirror frames the story in a far more humane way, within the social context of family and couples rather than patriarchal control. It constructs the myth of family but also of governmental power to improve in the face of disaster. Unlike the Daily Mail, the Mirror selects an image of a bereaved couple. The vignette effect and the choice of facial expression and body language construct a sense of their grief. The proxemics places Sarah in the front of the image, perhaps to construct the sign that women suffer the greatest loss when a child dies. However, her husband is also shown to be grieving, which negates the patriarchal values seen in the Daily Mail, creating a more collectivist and egalitarian approach to the story, which will naturalise the more progressive values of the Mirror’s left-wing readership. The headline, “Never Again,” is bold and sans serif, connoting the seriousness and strength of the sentiment; moreover, the white on black is stark and may connote the sense that there is only one way to see the situation. Unlike the Daily Mail, which accused a toxic culture within the NHS, The Mirror constructs a more positive position by presenting a promise by Health Secretary using the powerfully emphatic word “pledge.” This actively supports a culture of change and constructs the cultural myth that the NHS is an important institution that the government must support rather than condemn.